The Color Indigo and Its History
by Patricia L. Cummings
photos by James Cummings, Deb Roberts, and Rachel Biel
The color indigo is found in many antique quilts, both in cloth dyed by traditional methods of vat dyeing, and fabric that has been synthetically-dyed. In this article we will be discussing methods of indigo dyeing and the history of the color blue, including when it was first used in paintings and in fabric dyeing.
A number of indigo prints appear on one side of this nineteenth century quilt, along with typical fabrics from the time period. Note the "Cadet blue" square on the bottom row, near the center. photo by James Cummings
The first photo shown here is a section of a quilt. As you can see, there are a number of indigo prints, many of which could be called unsophisticated. To ascertain a date for this quilt with an unknown provenance, let's look at some of the fabrics. The larger scale floral fabric with green leaves is very reminiscent of the study of botany as a pastime in the Victorian age. We know that the color green was first compounded as a stable color by Samuel Widmer in Jouy in 1809. Since the color still is viable, we would have to assume that the quilt seen here was made after that date. All of the clues are a process of ruling out early dates in order to establish the latest date at which the quilt might have been made.
A shirting print with anchors appears on the surface, and that feature usually indicates a time-frame of the late nineteenth century when the Cocheco Mills of Dover and other manufacturers were producing that kind of design. Other colors in this combination four patch/ nine patch assembly are red, magenta, and brown. Red, orange, rust, and brown colors in early quilts often are derived from the process of “madder” dyeing. Most telling of all for documentation purposes is a fabric that is located approximately in the middle of the bottom row. That distinctive blue is called “Cadet Blue.” Fabric in that grey-blue color was not printed until 1870. Knowing that, we can jump this quilt up, date-wise, and call it “last quarter, nineteenth century quilt.”
There are other clues that tell us that this quilt has a nineteenth century provenance: the prints themselves, the overall workmanship, the way borders are handled, and the finishing methods, as well as the backing. In this case, the back is a similarly-pieced configuration of squares. The pieces for this reversible quilt obviously came from a scrap bag, one that could have been saved over many years, as was a common farm custom in New England.
This is a swatch from a piece of fabric in a 19th century scrapbag.
Once sewn into a quilt, it
is difficult to determine whether indigo fabrics were colored via
natural or synthetic means. Most quilt documenters with a trained
eye rely on the complexity of the print's design to determine
whether the fabric is of nineteenth century or twentieth century
manufacture. Simplicity
of print designs is a sign of a nineteenth century provenance. Polka
dots and striped fabric were more easily printed, and seem to have
been perennial favorites among quiltmakers. If one can see the back of the fabric, it is easy to see
if fabric was completely “saturated” on both sides. The back of
printed indigo fabric will sometimes be completely white, making it clear that the cloth was not dyed by submersion.
A second 19th century fabric swatch.
Classification of Colors
Indigo, the most saturated of blue colors, is a distinctive hue that lies somewhere between blue and violet. The color was first named by Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) when he sought to categorize color into seven major groups based upon the way in which a white prism diffuses light into a spectrum of seven distinctive colors. Newton's natural model for his color theories was the color spectrum of the rainbow.
Another 19th century indigo swatch.
Until the twelfth century, the color blue had been a virtually invisible color. Cave paintings relied heavily on the colors red, ochre (yellow), and black. Later, early paintings showed sky portions of a composition in red, white, or gold, not blue, according to Blue: The History of a Color by Michel Pastoureau, (Princeton and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). In Roman paintings, blue was used almost exclusively as a background color. In regards to cloth, blue was the color of peasant dress, not that of kings.
Deb Roberts shares this photo of an indigo fabric created by the "resist" technique, circa 1780. She reports having seen no less than ten other quilts with this identical design during her 2007 study tour. Rouen, France, the country's largest indigo fabric manufacturer, is the most likely source of the antique fabric, according to research Deb did at Mulhouse. For information about her comprehensive quilt and textile study tours, please visit her website: http://worldofquiltstravel.com
Indigo resist that was block-printed circa 1790, probably in Alsace, France. Notice the Indian influence, with the paisley (boteh) design motifs. Notice the counterplay of complementary colors (orange and blue). photo courtesy of Deb Roberts. For personal study only, please.
Indigo Dye for
Cloth Has Ancient Roots
During times before Christ, blue has been considered a mysterious color. The Romans believed that their imported dye agent from India, which they called indicum – (indigo) - was actually a stone, lapis indicus, because it arrived in compacted form. Of course, the actual content was pulverized leaves. Little did the ancients know that the color they so fervently desired was accessible via a shrub common to India, the country from whom “indigo” derives its name. The earliest proof of indigo use is a piece of cloth found in an Egyptian tomb that dates to 2500 B.C. Indigo-dyed cloth has retained its status as a staple color, over the centuries, due to its colorfast and lightfast qualities.
Small dots were popular in indigo dyeing. This is another 19th century swatch.
Let's
take a brief moment to look at the plant's discovery and
classification by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). The indigo plant was
first named in the book, Species
Plantarum,
(1753) by the Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician. Revered in
his lifetime, Linnaeus was awarded the ennoblement title of “Carl
von Linné.” For his work on classifying species, he earned
the honorary title of “The Father of Taxonomy.”
The above Indigo fabric swatch was clearly left over from a clothing construction project.
Other Early Dyes: Madder and Tyrian Purple
Another important early dye was derived by boiling the root of the madder plant. The resultant dye effectively colored cloth an orange, red, or brown cloth hue. The history of madder and other red dyeing agents such as the Cochineal beetle of South America have had entire volumes devoted to them. Two books well worth reading are: The Red Dyes: Cochineal, Madder, and Murex Purple by Gösta Sandberg (NC: Lark Books, 1997); and A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire (NY: HarperCollins, 2005) by Amy Butler Greenfield.
To convert white cloth to a
distinctive purple color, with the help of sunlight, tiny sea
mollusks from Tyre and Sidon, former cities of Palestine along the
Mediterranean, were harvested for their yellow-green secretions that
were used as a dyeing agent. The resultant color was called “Tyrian
purple.” While there is a written record of that dye,
unfortunately, there are no extant cloth examples. This can be
attributed to the perishable nature of cloth. Robes dyed with Tyrian
purple were reserved for royalty and high status members of society
who could afford the luxurious purple robes that became a symbol of
wealth.
This swatch is an indigo and white piece of cloth that is loosely-woven, as you can see by the raveled edges. This is either a 19th century or 20th century fabric.
The Color Blue
In contrast, indigo-dyed cloth has enjoyed a much more humble and utilitarian use. The species of indigo that has figured most prominently for dyeing is the plant Indigofera tinctoria that is native to India, China, Indonesia, and parts of South America. Although it is considered a bush, this plant can grow as tall as a human within a relatively short time. Other species of indigo grow in the East Indies, West Africa, and Japan.
This is a 20th century fabric swatch from the scrap bag of Patricia Cummings, manufacturer unknown.
Woad: A European Dye Agent
Europeans historically used the fermented leaves of woad plants to create dyes. Woad, or Isatis tinctoria, is a plant with yellow flowers that is native to France. According to author Florence Petitt in America's Indigo Blues, “woad is believed to have been used as a colorant during the Bronze Age in Europe and as a dye during the Iron Age---before 1000 B.C.” Woad is the agent by which warriors colored their faces blue, in order to seem more formidable to their opponents. There was much resistance when traders first tried to market indigo in Europe, until they discovered that it seemed to be a superior dyeing agent.
Indigo monochrome copperplate print circa 1800-1815, probably from Manchester, England
courtesy of Deb Roberts: http://worldofquiltstravel.com
This is an example of an indigo resist print. This dates to 1870-1880 and was most likely printed in Europe, according to its owner, Deb Roberts.
Indigo Dye is Substantive
One benefit of indigo is that it is a substantive dye. Unlike adjective dyes, substantive dyes need no mordant. A mordant is a medium that helps to adhere fabric and dye together, permanently. Otherwise, the two usually have no natural affinity for each other. The value of indigo is that it is a stable color that is both colorfast and lightfast. Once the fabric is taken out of the dye bath as a yellow color, it begins to turn to blue. Once the oxidation process is complete, the color is permanent. This factor actually was problematic to dyers for quite a long time, according to the book, America's Indigo Blues: Resist-printed and Dyed Textiles of the Eighteenth Century by Florence Pettit (New York, Hastings House Publishers, 1974).
The quilt top, shown above, is from the Appalachian area of Tenessee. Its owner, Beth Davis, estimates it to be from the early 1900s. The medium blue color, in the striped fabric, is "Cadet Blue." photo courtesy of Beth Davis
The color of indigo can range from light to dark. The degree of saturation of the color is directly proportionate to the amount of time the cloth is submerged in a fermentation-bath that works via utilization of the process of alkaline reduction. Graduated hues of “indigo” can be achieved by repeat dipping in the color solution. To achieve a deep color, the cloth can be kept in an indigo solution for up to two weeks, according to the book, Hand Block Printing and Resist Dyeing by Susan Bosence (NY: Arco Publishing, 1985).
The traditional way of working with indigo leaves is to boil them with stale human urine. A substance in urine called urea, or carbamide, is necessary to make indigo water soluble. Male urine, particularly that of boys under the age of seven, is preferred. So far, I have not uncovered a reason for that. Some modern dyers still try this process of indigo-dyeing. As you can imagine, it is a good idea to watch which way the wind is blowing or to wait until close neighbors are not at home, as this is a very odoriferous process.
Major Discovery of Synthetic Urea
Hilaire Rouelle, a French chemist, is credited with the discovery of the substance urea in 1773. The traditional source of urea is human urine. Today, urea is available synthetically, in either liquid or solid form, and is used commercially in the manufacture of animal feed, cleaning products, glue, fertilizers, barbiturates, and is even an additive to cosmetics. The initial production of synthetic urea, in 1828, occurred as a result of the work of a German chemist, Frederich Wöhler.
Indigo Dyeing in Africa
In West Africa, cloth dyed with indigo has long been considered a symbol of "wealth, abundance, and fertility," according to an online site: http://www.adire.clara.net/indigointroduction.htm
Traditionally, the Hausa people of Nigeria; and the Mossi, in the area that is now called Burkina Faso, used deep vat indigo dyeing at an important part of adire cloth making. The task of dyeing was relegated to just the men and lasted until the mid-twentieth century. Today, natural indigo dyeing continues by the Dogon women in Mali and Mossi, and the Dioula in Burkina Faso.
Historically-speaking, the dotted areas in this design would have been called, "picotage." This is a 20th century fabric in the collection of Patricia Cummings, manufacturer unknown.
How Are Shape Designs Imparted to the Cloth?
Traditionally, designs are created on the cloth by first applying a wax resist to areas of the cloth that one wishes to remain free of dye. After dipping the cloth into dye, the wax is removed by melting it, via the application of heat. To create gradations of color within the same piece of cloth, additional wax resists are executed, as well as additional dye treatments.
Dots, referred to as picotage, were traditionally imparted to cloth by means of small brass pins that were hammered into wood blocks for wood block printing. The pins would be dipped into either a mordant or a resist material that would be applied before the dye bath.
Notice the fine dots that make up the delineations of the rose edges. This is a 20th century print from the collection of Patricia Cummings. Manufacturer unknown.
Chance Discovery Leads to Aniline Dyes
The etymology of the word “aniline” is very interesting. In his book, Gösta Sandberg states that nil was an Indian word that meant “blue.” The Arabs and Egyptians changed the word to anil. The book, World Textiles (Boston, New York, London: A Bulfinch Press Book, Little Brown and Company, 1999), states that the word “aniline” is derived from the Arabic word, anil, which means indigo.
The Story of Textiles by Perry Walton (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1936), 118, credits a German chemist named Runge with noticing that “an aniline product distilled from coal tar gave a bright blue coloration under the influence of a bleaching powder,” in 1834. Another German scientist, Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Bayer, attempted to come up with a synthetic indigo in 1865.
The color “mauve” was the first aniline dye to be developed and happens to have been the result of a lab accident. In 1856, an eighteen year old chemist, (Sir) William H. Perkin, who was a student at the Royal College of Chemistry in London, was searching for a way to produce quinine, using coal tar derivatives. Mauve: how one man invented a color that changed the world by Simon Garfield (London: Faber & Faber Limited, 2000), states that Perkin's landmark discovery of what the chemist called “mauvine” resulted in scientists finding ways to produce more than two thousand additional artificial colors within the next fifty years.
By 1858, aniline dyed colors were widely used, according to Perry Walton. Since the early twentieth century, most of the indigo-dyed cloth that consumers purchase has been dyed with a synthetic indigo dye. By 1898, production of cloth with synthetic indigo was in full swing, and by 1913, synthetic indigo dye had all but replaced natural indigo-dyed cloth products in the western world. The dates listed are valuable ones to keep in mind for those professionals who document quilts.
1897 Sears Roebuck Catalog
The Dry Goods Department of the 1897 Sears Roebuck Catalog offers yardage for Henrietta, Domestic and Imported Serges, Sicilian Cloth, German Novelty Dress Goods, and Wash Silks available in “navy,” as well as other colors. That navy color, the deepest value of blue ever made, most likely was dyed with indigo.
Types of Printing with Indigo
"China blue" is the name given to some fabrics that have been copperplate printing with indigo. In this process, indigo powder is mixed with iron sulphate and a thickener and is printed onto white fabric followed by a chemical bath. The result is an imprint of color that is much lighter in color than the deeper navy color we mostly associate with the word, “indigo.” A textile example can be seen in the book, The Victoria & Albert Museum's Textile Collection: Design for Printed Textiles in England, From 1750 to 1850 by Wendy Hefford (V&A Publications, 1992). On page 47, there is a full page photo of a rococo design made at Bromley Hall, during the 1760s to 1770s.
"Penciling" is a very old technique invented by Indian makers of palampores, those one-layer, painted, Indian textiles that were so popular in England. In this technique, indigo mixed with chemicals and thickeners are applied to fabric. The color blue would be penciled onto yellow in order to arrive at the color green. The process of penciling was very damaging to the lungs of the artists as they were in such close proximity to the agents involved. A permanent, stable, green color eluded the best of dyers for centuries. The result is that many an antique quilt seems to have an odd beige color for leaves. Actually, when the quilt was new, those leaves were green. We see this kind of fading in mid-19th century quilts and call colors like that, “fugitive,” as they escape!
Here, you can see the folded over edge of an Indigo print and you can also understand that the fabric is not "saturated" on both sides as it would be in a vat-dye method. This is a piece of 20th century fabric, manufacturer unknown, collection of Patricia Cummings.
Two Indigo Quilts Up for Auction
On January 1, 2008, a so-called, “Hired Man's Quilt,” came up for auction at Copake Auctions, Inc., New York. The online photo shows the quilt, labeled #60, to have “Basket” blocks, and its colors are Indigo and White. This size (cot) quilt is hard to find these days. The estimated going price was $400 – $600.
Another quilt, marked #123, featured a mosaic patchwork quilt (79” x 68”) with quite a few indigo hexagons, along with other typical late nineteenth century fabrics, as well as indigo border. That quilt was expected to bring $300. - $500.
The International Quilt Study Center has a search function on their quilt database. If you visit: http://www.quiltstudy.org/quilts/search.html and type in the word, "indigo," as the keyword, ten photos of quilt photos and descriptions come up. You will notice that some of the quilts are strictly indigo and white while other nineteenth century quilts are scrappy and simply include patches of the color indigo.
The Longevity of Indigo
Whenever we look at the process of color application and techniques, in art, pottery, paintings, or textiles, we are filled with wonder at the development of color processes over the centuries. Some experiments have been perilous. The too-soon demise of early painters is testimony to the inherent dangers of handling carcinogenic solvents and pigments. The use of arsenic in the production of wall paper was a real and present danger to household members of English homes, even as late as times in which William Morris lived, in the late Victorian Age.
William Morris himself became involved in designing printed textiles in 1873. Susan Bosence's book reports:
His loathing of those accursed 'Prussian blues' led him (Morris) to more tireless research into woad and indigo dyeing. He and his dyers built an indigo vat 9 ft. deep, holding 1,000 gal, requiring five dyers to operate it, and 'very pretty it was to see the silk, coming green out of the vat and gradually turning blue'. His own talent, his own reading and research, his own experiments in design and dyeing – the continuity from the first to last – were the essential ingredients for the excellence of Morris's work.
Prussian blue, later renamed “Lafayette” blue in honor of General Lafayette, is an intense blue that is often seen in nineteenth century quilts including some Baltimore Album quilts, circa 1850. The dye pigment for Prussian blue is made from ferric ferrocyanide, and the resultant color is as unmistakably bright. A direct contrast would be Cadet Blue which is unmistakably flat in luminescence.
William Morris' preferred garb was an indigo shirt. Indigo has been a true favorite of many ever since its discovery. One author states that there is hardly a culture anywhere that produced textiles that did not also use indigo as a colorant. According to Indigo Textiles: Techniques and History by Gösta Sandberg, (NC: Lark Books, 1989), page 35, even after the discovery of synthetic indigo, the traditional vat/fermentation bath processing of indigo continued to be done by the Miao of northern Thailand and China (the Hmong people), the Yoruba of West Africa, and the Toba of northern Sumatra.
Embroidered Indigo Panel, 45" x 45", made by the Miao people* of China.
photo taken by Rachel Biel, eBay seller "rayelart"
Note: The term "Miao" or "Meo" refers to the Hmong population of China, which at last count, was 9.6 million people. Those particular words are considered pejorative to the Hmong. Both words were used frequently until the early 1970s when a scholar named Yang Dao campaigned against the use of the terms. For more information, read The Spirit Catches You And You Fall Down by Anne Fadiman.
According to the book, Arts & Crafts of China by Scott Minick and Jiao Ping (Thames and Hudson, 1996), China's southern minority population is active in planting lancao (indigo) for use in dyeing as they prefer this natural source to synthetic indigo which has been available in China since the early twentieth century.
Origin of "Miao" Panel Disputed in Letter of August 14, 2009
Hello Pat,
Having looked at your website recently I thought I should point out that you feature a Bai Shibori/Tie Dye overstitched cloth/panel from Yunnan as "Miao"(rayelart eBay seller).
I have been sourcing these & other similar cloths from the Bai for 25 years and even know the dyers who made them.
All the best,
Much More to Know
Though this article is lengthy, it is a mere glimpse of the topic of early cloth colorants, dye methods, and printed fabrics. There is always so many more details that could be added. For those who wish to explore the topic further, any of the books cited here are a good place to start your investigation. Quite a few academic papers have been written about indigo, its history, and the cultures who have used it. Many other textile history books provide information on print and dyeing processes. Suffice it to say that indigo-colored cloth has been in our midst for centuries, and with the popularity of indigo-dyed products, most especially blue jeans, there is reason to believe that the color will continue to be manufactured for some time to come.
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Note: A word of caution is in order. Please take extreme care when working with any dyes. There can be an eminent danger to your eyes, your lungs, and through absorption through your hands. Please use an adequate breathing mask, and proper attire. Also, before you start, be aware of environmental concerns and how to properly dispose of any waste products or by-products. Thank you!
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NOTICES
1) For Procion Dyes, check out http://www.dharmatrading.com/ Dharma Trading Company. (no affiliation).
2) For quality reproduction fabrics and efficient service, visit Margo Kramer's online site: www.reproductionfabrics.com (again, no affiliation other than satisfied customer).
3) If you are looking for a copy of America's Indigo Blues, I have an extra copy that I am willing to sell. Please contact me for details. pat@quiltersmuse.com
4) Windham Fabrics/Baum Textiles has a number of collections of blue fabrics. Their latest line: "Indigo and Gold" was first available mid-December 2007. To see swatches, please visit their website.
5) To read a discussion of other blue and white fabrics, please read my article on Toile de Jouy.
6) Online link to Shelby County Historical Society's indigo and white quilt.
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©Copyright 2008. Quilter's Muse Publications, Concord, NH. All rights reserved. pat@quiltersmuse.com.
Patricia Cummings is a nationally-certified master craftsman in quilting, a textile researcher, and a quilt historian who lives in Concord, New Hampshire. She and her photographer husband, James, collaborate on producing articles of interest to lovers of antique textiles and fans of history.